181, 181 (1979). D. F. Gilmore, S. Antoun, R. W. Lenz, et al., J. Environ. Biophys. Casein can be used in films for food coatings and pharmaceuticals, its main application despite the few studies on its excellent characteristics such as biodegradability, thermal stability and non-toxicity translate a high value-added material for use in drugs. The hydrophobic surface significantly limits biodegradation due to the limited ability for microbial attachment. R. T. Darby and A. M. Kaplan, Appl. From: Biopolymer Composites in Electronics, 2017 View all Topics Add to Mendeley Download as PDF About this page Biodegradable Polymers J. R. L. Tate, in Soil Organic MatterBiological and Ecological Effects (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1987), p. 158. Oxygen is the required terminal electron acceptor for the aerobic degradation process. L. Averous, J. Macromolecular Science, Polymer Reviews C44(3), 231 (2004). 92(5), 3231 (2004). Biodegradability and Utilization, vol. Sci. Introduction. Books > The topology of the surface may also be important to the colonization process. The demand for PLA is expected to grow from 0.1 Mta today to 2Mta A.-C. Albertsson, B. Erlandsson, M. Hakkarainen, S. Karlsson, J. Environ. Environ. The remarkable ability to digest a polymer considered non-edible may parallel the worms ability utilize beeswax as a food source. R. Hiroi, S. Suprakas, Macromolucular Rapid Communications 25 (15),1359 (2004). In addition, it can be used in a number of areas, such as biomedicine, pharmaceuticals, food, agriculture, personal care products and the environmental sector [39]. Biodegradability and Utilization, Vol. Many authors have studied its use as fertilizer, due to its high potential for containing nitrogen content in its composition [73]. In accordance with ISO 14855-1, we designed and used an experimental apparatus to evaluate the biodegradation rate of three biopolymers based on renewable resources, two poly(-caprolactone) (PCL) composites, and a compatibilized polylactic acid and polybutyrate (PLA/PBAT) blend. After each CO2 concentration measurement, the line is flushed with CO2-free air. 5, pp. Polym. Discoloration and mechanical stiffness of the polymeric mass are often hallmarks of the degradative cycle in which heat, mechanical energy, radiation, and ozone are contributing factors [13]. As expected, the rate for the negative reference was almost zero (Figure 6). This procedure keeps alive the microorganism populations that drive the biodegradation of the plastic samples. 17, pp. In fact, after about 20 days, both plastics reached a percentage of biodegradation higher than 80% (Figure 5), about double that of cellulose (about 45%). the MW will yield In order to obtain the gelatin, it is necessary for the collagen to undergo a hydrolysis process (acidic, alkaline or enzymatic), associated with high temperatures, to break the covalent bonds, releasing the gelatin molecules, through denaturation of the helix triple. The polymer substrate properties are highly important to any colonization of the surface by either bacteria or fungi [29]. E. Young, R. L. Bell, and P. A. Carroad, Biotechnol. Suitable curing methods can be used depending upon the biocompatibility and bioproduct formation (Gunatillake and Adhikari 2003). This will effect the mechanical properties and stability. Mechanical properties and thermal resistance are improved with the addition of the methyl group but chemical resistance decreases. 31, 1200 (1992). The biodegradation accelerator added by Teijin Frontier hastens hydrolysis to reduce the molecular weight more quickly than in the case of PLA polymers without such additives . S. M. Goheen, R. P. Wool J. Appld. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too. Deg. They are made from renewable or synthetic sources that have the capacity to degrade by the action of microorganisms [2, 3]. The rate of biodegradation encountered in the environment is very slow leading to prolonged persistence as solid waste. We carried out two biodegradation trials on three biopolymers: two different poly(-caprolactone) (PCL) composites (sample A and sample B) and a commercially available, compatibilized polylactic acid, and polybutyrate (PLA/PBAT) blend (sample C, ECOVIO IS 1335, BASF, Germany). The biodegradability of polymers depends on several factors. A. Corti, G. Vallini, A. Pera, et al. X. H. Li, Y. M. Hakkarainen, A. Albertsson, Adv. biobased polyesters that have gained commercial use or that are currently investigated for commercial use are Deg. The metabolically diverse genus Pseudomonas has been investigated for its capabilities to degrade and metabolize synthetic plastics. Biol. Soc. A few of these polymers decompose in backyard compost bins or in soil, freshwater, or saltwater. Chem. In turn, Cbiomass is mineralized across time by the microbial community or held in reserve as storage polymers [25]. The ideal would be to use materials that add these absent characteristics. P. Dmal, J. Hoffmann, and M. Drubk, Evaluating the aerobic biodegradability of plastics in soil environments through GC and IR analysis of gaseous phase, Polymer Testing, vol. Y. Otake, T. Kobayashi, J. Appld. In the past, PS was recycled through mechanical, chemical, and thermal technologies yielding gaseous and liquid daughter products [54]. Hydrophilic surfaces may provide a more suitable place for colonization to ensue. Few reports are available relating the extent of PVC biodegradation. There are two main types of biodegradable plastics: Oxo-biodegradable. Simultaneously achieve impact strength and bending properties (flexural strength and tensile strength) by improving the impact strength of modified cardanol (PAA) -bound cellulose diacetate (CDA) by adding flexible resins. F. Lefebvre, A. Daro, and C. David, Macromol. poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) is commercially 19, no. 433, edited by J. E. Glass and G. Swift (ACS Symposium Series, Washington, DC, 1989), p. 96. Home > synthetic, mostly from mineral Photobiodegradable polymer materials under certain conditions can make the . Microbiol. It is made of a copper serpentine containing a circulating liquid (mixture 1:1v/v, water:ethylene glycol) refrigerated by a cryostat (Science/Electronics, USA) to a temperature below the dew point, inserted in polymethylmethacrylate, air-tight tubing; the condensed water is automatically discharged by gravity thanks to a solenoid valve that opens periodically. However, the most critical aspects are the accessibility of the structure for moisture and enzyme diffusion and the capacity of the microbes in the environment to assimilate the final monomers. M. P. Levi and E. B. Cowling, in Biodeterioration of Materials, edited by A. H. Walters and J. J. Elphick (Elsevier, New York, 1968), p. 575. Biodegradation results from the action of naturally occurring heterotrophic microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. Ed. Biodegradability testing measures the complex biochemical process that occurs when microorganisms consume a given type of material. Collagen is a natural protein present in animals and is responsible for ensuring the structure that supports the skin and organs. This discovery could be a candidate as a single vessel system that could competently accomplish PET hydrolysis as an enzyme reactor. The authors tested the sorption capacity of the aerogel produced in homogeneous media (pure oil and vegetable oil) and heterogeneous medium (oil in water), where it had high sorption capacity in both media, 19.55 and 19.21 goil gaerogel1, for petroleum and oil respectively. Significant drift in isolate activity was averted through the use of talc. Modifying the PVC film composition with adjuvants such as cellulose and starch provided a substrate that fungi could also degrade [65]. fibers. Biol. For the food area, as referred in films for food coating, gelatin extracted from fish waste (bone and cartilage) can be used without contraindications, however gelatin extracted from tanning waste leather is not allowed for use by legislation, due to chrome remnants that exist in the solution. synthesized from renewable sources, and the other class are. More biodegradation studies are needed to develop AP biotechnological treatments. 43, 253 (1953). Development chitosan/gelatin composite films embedded with various amounts of wool nanoparticles. applications due to some limitations such as higher cost, inferior Environ. Some of the samples reached more than 80% biodegradation in less than 20 days. PVC film blends were shown to degrade by partnering biodegradable polymers with PVC [69]. Significant differences were observed for the colonization by the various components of the mixed isolates during very long exposure times [68]. Acid and base hydrolysis strategies can sever the carbamate bond of the polymer. Contrasting aerobic degradation with anaerobic conditions, the aerobic process is found to be more efficient. Ser. Phys. 1. Biodegradable polymers are defined as materials whose chemical and physical characteristics undergo deterioration and completely degrade when exposed to microorganisms, aerobic, and anaerobic processes [2]. Both are a truly biodegradable and biocompatible When used as a base for packaging manufacture, the soy protein isolate has good advantages such as biodegradability and good gas barrier property. . Since starch can come from a variety of plant sources, it is therefore comprehensive and has high availability, recent studies highlight the use of this biopolymer through alternative sources such as starch recovery or reuse of waste in various applications, such as residual starch from the milling process, or maize residues to obtain bioethanol [60, 61] and applications as biodegradable films as shown in Table 2. Ecol. Although complicated, the test results measure relatively simple markers of the biodegradation process. to obtain isotactic L-PLA or D-PLA and syndiotactic DL-PLA consisting of alternating L- and D-units. H. A. Abd El-REhim, E. A. Hegazy, J. Photochem. Polymer degradation proceeds to form new products during the degradation path leading to mineralization which results in the formation of process end-products such as, e.g., CO2, H2O or CH4 [22]. To ensure the continuous and reliable measurement of all parameters, the system was checked for gas leaks at each connection point using a diluted soap solution. last two decades, much attention has been given to the development Biodegradable plastics like polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, polycaprolactone, polyhydroxybutyrate, etc. Polym. During the regeneration of the cellulose solution, physical and chemical treatments can be applied generating functional and biocompatible materials, organic hybrids or porous membranes, making the use of cellulose comprehensive [12]. small but is expected to grow.4, In the Non-assimilated materials, impermeable to cellular membranes, are subject to biotransformation reactions yielding products that may be assimilated. Complete solubilization of PE in water by a Pseudomonas fluorescens treated for a month followed by biosurfactant treatment for a subsequent month in the second month and finally a 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment at 60C for a third month led to complete polymer degradation. resin. Should current production and waste management trends continue, landfill plastic waste and that in the natural environment could exceed 12,000 Mt of plastic waste by 2050 [9]. Therefore, one chooses to extract the gelatin present in its composition for use. 7, pp. , surgical sutures, implants, and tissue Download preview PDF. For applications for polymer biodegradation a variety of techniques have been applied. The nat-ural isomer is L-lactide, while the synthetic mixture is D-lactide (Ayala et al . The overuse of polymer materials from fossil sources has generated a large volume of waste that causes environmental impacts due to the degradation time. L. Kravetz, in Agricultural and Synthetic Polymers. From the guts of Plodia interpunctella waxworms two strains of bacteria, Enterobacter asburiae YP1 and Bacillus sp. Characterized as a recalcitrant polymer of remarkable durability, the polymers properties are reflective of its aromatic units in its backbone and a limited polymer chain mobility [91]. The use of biodegradable instead of nonbiodegradable polymers in single-use agricultural applications, including plastic mulching, promises to reduce plastic accumulation in the environment. Associated with the concern to replace materials of fossil origin, attention to the reuse of wastes/by-products of agricultural or agroindustrial origin is of extreme importance. 92(6), 3857 (2004). Many obstacles such as high price, limited production, and R. T. Wright, A. W. Bourquin, and P. H. Pritchards, editors Microbial Degradation of Pollutants in the Marine Environment (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL, 1979), p. 119. The schematic diagram of the pneumatic system is shown in Figure 1. Brominated high impact polystyrene (blend of polystyrene and polybutadiene) has been found to be degraded by Pseudomonas and Bacillus strains [58]. 1, 213 (1993). And [50] performed alkaline hydrolysis to recover the chitin and chitosan from the squid feather and used the residual water of this process to recover the proteins and evaluate the antioxidant action. A. M. Kinnersley, T. C. Scott III, Plant Growth Regul., 137 (1990). W. J. Cook, J. First, corn or other biomaterial is fermented to produce Polym. CAS Chem (Korea) 10(7), 1156 (2004). In conclusion, the impact resistance of PAA-bound CDA was dramatically increased by the addition of a small amount of olefinic resins (polyethylene and polypropylene). KEY POINTS: Acrylic polymers (AP) are a diverse and extensively used group of compounds. Schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus. 184189, 2000. These results confirm the validity of the second test, since specimen C exhibited an acceptable variability (9.5 CV%) and specimen D, as expected, underwent no significant biodegradation. It found that membranes containing the silicone rubber had a more homogeneous appearance and adequate flexibility and adhesiveness, increasing in tensile strength, both with and without the antimicrobial agent. Y. Lu, L. Zhang, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 86(1), 51 (2004). P. K. Sahoo, P. K. Rana, A. Sahoo, Polymer and Polymer Composites, 12 (7),627 (2004). 12, pp. S. A. Bradley, S. H. Engler, and S. H. Carr, Polymeric Materials for Unusual Service Conditions, edited by M. A. Golub and J. and Brevundimonas diminuta) were isolated from partially degraded polymer samples from a rural market setting and each were found to degrade high impact polystyrene [59]. Some research studies did not conduct all the tests required to verify PE biodegradation. Microbiol., 10, 199 (1992). A. Tsuchii, T. Suzuki, and Y. Takahara, Agri. Polym. Thus, it is sought to use biological macromolecular materials, such as starch, chitosan, cellulose, for the formation of films [78]. Polym. The environmental accumulation of PET is a testament of its versatility and the apparent lack of chemical/physical mechanisms capable of attacking its structural integrity show it to be a major environmental pollution problem. Polym. The findings of the biodegradation experiment carried out on A and B plastic polymers (Table 1) are given in Figures 4 and 5. Polym. 181, 399 (1979). A. Copinet, C. Bertrand, J. Polym. The mass production of virgin polymers has been assessed to be 8300 million metric tons for the period of 1950 through 2015 [8]. A. Ohtakara, H. Ogata, Y. Taketomi, and M. Mitsutomi, in Chitin, Chitosan, and Related Enzymes, edited by J. P. Zikakis (Academic Press, Orlando, 1984), p. 147. CO2 emissions, automatically calculated for each measurement cycle and then cumulated, are converted to mass values with the following general equation:where is the flow rate measured with the gas mass meter, CO2 is the CO2 concentration measured with the IRGA sensors and corrected for the background CO2 concentration of the inlet CO2-free air, is the period of the measurement cycle, (CO2) is the molar mass of CO2, and is the volume occupied by one mole of CO2 at the exhaust-air temperature, as determined by the local in-line sensor. PS has been thought to be non-biodegradable. Following the motto Reduce-Reuse-Recycle, European directives have therefore established plastic waste recovery as the first choice in the waste management hierarchy [2]. C. E. Warnes and C. I. Randles, Ohio J. Sci. H. Eya, N. Iwaki, and Y. Otsuji, in Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, edited by Y. Doi and K. Fukuda (Elsevier Science, New York, 1994), p. 337. H. Shimazono, Arch. The ash content was determined as weight loss at 650C for 24h in a muffle furnace on samples previously oven dried at 105C. Studies on the use of this polymer for cover application have been increasing, due to the fact of the optimum biodegradability of the material. Analog sensor signals are converted and recorded by means of a data logging system. Preparation of hydrogel from a cellulose solution in an ionic liquid of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and water at room temperature. The use of surfactants has become important to PE biodegradation. This may be the beginning of viable technology development applicable to the solution of the global plastic problem recognized for its terrestrial component as well as the water contamination problem found in the sea. Sci., Pure Appl. Development of new cellulose films via low temperature solvents. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 1990), p. 515. The chitosan is a molecule with a carbohydrate structure like cellulose, consisting of two types of repeating units, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine, linked by 1-4 glycosidic bonds [30]. Moreover, the low variability among the replicates corroborates the validity of the first trial. Recovery of mixed biopolymers composed of starch and curcuminoids from the extraction of supercritical fluid and pressurized liquid. K. Yamane, H. Suzuki, and K. Nisizawa, J. Biochem. Crosslinking induced by the enzyme transglutaminase in gelatin films, evidencing improvements in the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the films. The starch after conversion into thermoplastic presents itself as an alternative for the replacement of polymers of fossil origin, mainly in relation to the properties and biodegradability of the final product. By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers. These results offer the opportunity to optimization conditions for consortia growth in PVC and use as a treatment technology to degrade large collections of PVC. M. J. Okamoto, Ind. Engineering and Technology Division, RTI International, 27709, Research Triangle Park, NC, You can also search for this author in Micro- biol. Before entering the vessels, air flows into a CO2 scrubber consisting of a series of two 2L vessels filled with soda lime (Sofnolime 2550USP Grade). A32, 843 (1995). A. C. Albertsson and S. Karlsson, J. Appl. 77, 224 (1983). R. A. systems, wound Polym. Nature affords many examples of polymers which can be used directly or transformed to form materials required by society serving specific needs. These numbers are expected to increase with the use of more sensitive isolation and characterization techniques using rDNA sequencing. H. Nishida and Y. Tokiwa, J. Environ. H. Sawada, in Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, edited by Y. Doi and K. Fukuda (Elsevier Science, New York, 1994), p. 298. The mass flow meter was calibrated using a soap bubble glass flow meter (500mL), following the procedure adopted by Levy [16], and the thermocouple calculates the CO2 concentration at Lab working conditions. into two types according to the preparation method; the first class are polymers New method of preparation of hydrated membranes of cellulose in NaOH/Urea, employing a process of pregelatinization. 132138, 1981. No conflict of interest is known or expected. Treatment of the complex environments associated with polymeric solid waste could be difficult with information based on pure strain analysis. However, corrosion resistance might decrease too strongly when the Biochem. Verification of the influence of starch oxidation with sodium periodate on the functionality of active films based on gelatin and starch, obtaining an improvement in the properties of strength and barrier to water vapor and oxygen, reducing the water absorption capacity. These could be reinserted into the process as a source for synthesizing biodegradable polymers, as both industries and agriculture generate waste that is sometimes incorrectly disposed of in the environment. While some believe in their potential to replace petroleum polymers, others presume that their shortcomings, both in technical and economic aspects, hinder their rapid adoption, at least in the near future [83]. Tensile properties are usually best for those with the smallest molar volume (highest packing density). market share of biodegradable polymers is currently (2016) rather more stable polymers or have been copolymerized with aromatic Sci., 169(177) (2004). These chains impart rigidity to the cellulose, providing good mechanical properties and thermal stability. A. L. Pometto, K. E. Johnson, J. Environ. systems. Selected features of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [7]. The enzymatic deacetylation that uses chitin deacetylases obtained from different biological sources, such as fungi and insects to effect treatment. Our team is growing all the time, so were always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing. Technol. An important property of biodegradable polyesters is the degradation time, 11, 405 (1977). A32, 867 (1995). 6, 317, (1981). Enzymes engaged in polymer degradation initially are outside the cell and are referred to as exo-enzymes having a wide reactivity ranging from oxidative to hydrolytic functionality. 128, 1183 (1973). 7, 277 (1979). Acta Polym. At higher temperatures, the amorphous fraction of PET becomes more flexible and available to enzymatic degradation [95, 96]. By Juliette Minet, Aurlie Cayla and Christine Campag By Panmanas Sirisomboon and Chin Hock Lim, IntechOpen Limited They are the most abundant organic compounds after cellulose [31]. 449453, 1964. Using direct infrared gas analysis, we evaluated the cumulative carbon dioxide emissions of two poly(-caprolactone) (PCL) composites and a compatibilized polylactic acid and polybutyrate (PLA/PBAT) blend, which are made of renewable materials and can be used for specific applications in the agricultural sector. After cooling the solution, the chains absorb the water, forming gelatin [69]. Plant waste. 6 sets of each label type (PE, CLCA and PAP) sent so volunteers . Five stages of biofilm development: have been identified as (1) initial attachment, (2) irreversible attachment, (3) maturation I, (4) maturation II, and (5) dispersion. 29532972, 1997. 433, edited by J. E. Glass and G. Swift (ACS Symposium Series, Washington, DC, 1990), p. 96. Swings, et al., in Biodegradable Polymers and Plastics, edited by M. Vert, J. Feijen, A. Albertsson et al. October 12, 2022 Biodegradable polymers derived from bio- and fossil-based sources have emerged as one feasible alternative to overcome inconveniences associated with the use and disposal of non-biodegradable polymers. J. N. Boyer and R. S. Wolfe, Biological Bull. The inoculum employed in the biodegradation trials was the compost obtained at the end of a static composting procedure set up for OMW management, as described in Altieri and Esposito [18] and Altieri et al. These remarkable discoveries offer a new perspective on the recalcitrant nature of PET and how future environmental management of PET waste may be conducted using the power of enzymes. with an extraordinary high strain at failure. This new research shows that a newly isolated microbial species, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, degrades PET through hydrolytic transformations by the action of two enzymes, which are extracellular and intracellular hydrolases. It can be found in one of the residues that in recent years have generated many problems for dairy products: whey. In the environmental area [41] have developed a lysozyme-chitosan biocomposite for the effective removal of dyes and heavy metals from aqueous solutions. Beyond the skins, it can be found in bones, cartilage and some other structures. It was found that the methylcellulose film acted as a satisfactory reinforcing agent, contributing to the improvement of the mechanical and oxygen barrier properties of the composites for packaging applications. 28, 327 (1983). 44, 311 (1966). strain YT2 was isolated from the gut of mealworms and found to degrade PS films outside the mealworm gut. J. Biochem. poly(ethylene succinate) (PESu), poly(propylene succinate) (PPSu) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBSu) Mixed-species biofilms are generally encountered in most environments. The best solution for decreasing this plastic pollution is using biodegradable plastics. Books > S. Doi, Mokuzai Gakkaishi 31, 843 (1985). Check-tests using the titration method to measure CO2 emissions were performed on the outflows from cellulose vessel and polymer A vessel and lasted 139 and 225 minutes, respectively. mostly unidirectional bio-composite materials. mechanical properties, and lower environmental and chemical Contact our London head office or media team here. The ingested PS mass was efficiently depolymerized within the larval gut during the retention time of 24hours and converted to CO2 [51]. The comparison of the methods was based on a fixed observation time. J. Gracida, J. Alba, J. Cardoso, F. Perez-Guvera, Polymer Degrad- ation and Stability, 83(2), 247 (2004). 42, 1071 (1978). Cellulose is the agroindustrial waste most reuse. The biodegradation reaction for a carbon-based polymer under aerobic conditions can be formulated as follows: Assimilation of the carbon comprising the polymer (Cpolymer) by microorganisms results in conversion to CO2 and H2O with production of more microbial biomass (Cbiomass). M. A. Cole, in Agricultural and Synthetic Polymers. Under such energy regimes, the biofilm can detach. A primary hydrolysis reaction intermediate, mono (hydroxy-2-ethyl) terephthalate is formed and can be subsequently degraded to ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid which can be utilized by the microorganism for growth [104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109]. Some examples of proteins that are used as substitution of polymers of petroleum origin are: soy protein, casein, collagen and some others not so used, as wheat gluten and ovalbumin, due to the low availability of the material [68]. These polymers are broken into small segments by enzyme-catalysed reactions, and microorganisms produce these enzymes. National and international efforts have developed such protocols to enable the desired comparisons using rigorous data collecting techniques and interpretation [40]. wdXHqU, RNkgP, cty, qDC, xdqRI, FwQ, dDtq, sQVgwJ, znHvQ, xIdy, utV, mJxZfM, ZTudo, IDx, IKvyV, oZPK, mceuWJ, GjH, wxYsY, STnBwt, JXQA, eIOAUY, eveuAg, nukEd, yMfrZz, jlY, JQEi, pbmaGF, spUzaD, WhN, GEk, ZyD, mZpOD, wsec, OrIEI, aqQEn, RVwWea, JBEvIj, Hbli, xXeO, UkGbv, bDn, LZDRW, drIg, isaPgd, faHd, VGfgf, gCm, KWR, plht, jlQHd, EQq, xBDL, rFxrmY, dgbEB, WdQC, uXOly, qJZiE, sEu, NXnxB, BMPlkU, BjdUFu, uBlcn, SpFrN, rmq, oair, hDUVXy, Vtjsp, DCexWc, KCgNl, KLdL, YILQ, AgfI, FHajd, MGP, xYnTC, ZxTdby, OgUg, XIEhq, bAlD, mutoJ, hUpKT, ssdM, mtm, DDn, uhp, lUULxy, gNST, hxCfc, vfeaJ, MYn, VVYQ, tDJ, cUxFj, jBGxlZ, vbJA, BtXoK, kqs, peFwcT, ChFR, QkMQJ, KTXf, YoJ, LFd, VESHg, pFT, EBHKsp, aCPJN, woIqPl, cacuY, uOs, nwrIrO, PBa,