endstream endobj 137 0 obj <>stream All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before presecribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. information on the Michigan State Revenue Sharing Program. Old World diseases like smallpox, measles, malaria and many others spread through Indian populations. 28 April 2020 <. 666668. AMSA bolsters medical education in ways that support professional and personal growth. According to Jennifer Deane, the label Inquisition implies "an institutional coherence and an official unity that never existed in the Middle Ages. h24U0P04S0T+- bB.vv I This system was taken over by the other Reformed churches. Merton explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science. [95] Fried says, "he was the first king and emperor to seriously enact the legal principle according to which the Pope was beyond the reach of all human justicea decision that would have major ramifications in the future. However, the church insists that the human soul was immediately infused by God, and the reality of a single ancestor (commonly called monogenism) for the human race. Throughout its long history, the Church has been a major source of social services like schooling and medical care; an inspiration for art, culture and philosophy; and an influential player in politics and religion. Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc. Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency, Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn, County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jurisdiction&oldid=1124566920, Articles with dead external links from February 2020, Articles with permanently dead external links, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles needing additional references from July 2013, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 29 November 2022, at 10:43. As a common law system, jurisdiction is conceptually divided between jurisdiction over the subject matter of a case (called in rem) and jurisdiction over the person (called in personam). Jesus learned the texts of the Hebrew Bible, with its Ten Commandments (which later became influential in Western law[citation needed]) and became an influential wandering preacher. Get the right guidance with an attorney by your side. Gideon Boas, Public International Law: Contemporary Principle and Perspectives (Edward Elgar 2012) pp. To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting. Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp. Black & White Taxicab & Transfer Co. v. Brown & Yellow Taxicab & Transfer Co. Hinderlider v. La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co. District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman. [178] According to a study by the scholar Joseph Henrich from Harvard University, the Catholic church "changed extended family ties, as well as values and psychology of individuals in the Western world".[179][180]. Learn how and when to remove this template message, International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act, United States District Court for the District of Utah, Immunity from prosecution (international law), "Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act Summary", "Court of Appeals to Decide Two Cases With Major Landlord-Tenant Implications", "Jurisdiction - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary", Louisiana Power & Light Co. v. City of Thibodaux. Early Christians purchased slaves in the markets simply to set them free. Favaro, Antonio (ed.). World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Bront, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, John Updike, and many others. In AD 325, Constantine conferred the First Council of Nicaea to gain consensus and unity within Christianity, with a view to establishing it as the religion of the Empire. The Catholic Church's official position is fairly non-specific, stating only that faith and the origin of man's material body "from pre-existing living matter" are not in conflict, and that the existence of God is required to explain the spiritual component of man's origin. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. [343] Catholic Health Australia is the largest non-government provider grouping of health, community and aged care services, representing about 10% of the health sector. Later after Islamic invasion, the writings of Mankah and of the Indian doctor Sustura were translated into Arabic at Baghdad. Christianity also played a key role in propagating the idea of charity. As a practical example of court jurisdiction, as of 2013 Utah has five types of courts, each for different legal matters and different physical territories. [405] Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world (particularly Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the Umayyad and the Abbasid periods by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic. Four out of five Mormons believe that being a good parent is one of the most important goals in life, and roughly three out of four Mormons put having a successful marriage in this category. The idea of universal jurisdiction is fundamental to the operation of global organizations such as the United Nations and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which jointly assert the benefit of maintaining legal entities with jurisdiction over a wide range of matters of significance to nations (the ICJ should not be confused with the ICC and this version of "universal jurisdiction" is not the same as that enacted in the War Crimes Law (Belgium), which is an assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction that will fail to gain implementation in any other state under the standard provisions of public policy). The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. During the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther and John Calvin denied the sacramentality of marriage. ", Shalev, Baruch (2005). Hackett Publishing, 2003. [102]:184,185,210 This can be traced in expressions of law, traditions, tales, prophecy, and historical narratives, in letters, bulls and poems written during the crusading period. From 1100, he wrote, monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging to one of the greatest epochs of art, providing stark contrast to the monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living during the period. The Renaissance: a short history. During the period of European history often called the Dark Ages which followed the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Church scholars and missionaries played a vital role in preserving knowledge of Classical Learning. In the High Middle Ages, the religion that had begun by decrying the power of law (Romans 7:1) developed the most complex religious law the world has ever seen. The King James Version, is an English translation of the Christian Bible, has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.[284]. Christianity has been intricately intertwined with the history and formation of Western society. "It may, however, be safely asserted that the publicity of the trade in exposed children became impossible under the influence of Christianity, and that the sense of the seriousness of the crime was very considerably increased. Given the Ottoman tradition of generally ignoring Western European languages and cultures, officials found themselves unable to handle such affairs. These teachings deeply influenced Western culture. [243]:116118 The Byzantines are also credited with several technological advancements, particularly in architecture (e.g. A hospital and medical training center existed at Gundeshapur. This began within 20 years of the discovery of the New World by Europeans in 1492 in December 1511, Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of Hispaniola for their "cruelty and tyranny" in dealing with the American natives. [211]:45,52,53. Modern Library chronicles (Modern Library ed.). Similarly, Christian sacred music by composers like Pachelbel, Vivaldi, Bach, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Liszt, and Verdi is among the most admired classical music in the Western canon. To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting. After discussions with Pope Urban VIII (a man who had written admiringly of Galileo before taking papal office), Galileo believed he could avoid censure by presenting his arguments in dialogue form, but the Pope took offence when he discovered that some of his own words were being spoken by a character in the book who was a simpleton and Galileo was called for a trial before the Inquisition. "[126][127], This was the impetus of the first crusade, however, the "Colossus of the Medieval world was Islam, not Christendom" and despite initial success, these conflicts, which lasted four centuries, ultimately ended in failure for western Christendom. TROANOS, S., and VELISSAROPOULOU-I. The Supreme Court seats five judges who hear appeals on first-degree felonies (the most serious) including capital crimes, as well as all civil cases from District Court (excepting divorce/domestic cases). The word "jurisdiction" is also used, especially in informal writing, to refer to a state or political subdivision generally, or to its government, rather than to its legal authority.[19]. "[165]:14 The Greeks and Romans said our deepest moralities depend on our social position which is given to us by fate. [65]:12[66][67] Wolf Liebeschuetz says records show "Theodosius duly complied and came to church humbly, without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly readmitted him to communion. [205] In this historic Bull, Pope Gregory outlined his summation of the impact of the Church on the ancient institution of slavery, beginning by acknowledging that early Apostles had tolerated slavery but had called on masters to "act well towards their slaves knowing that the common Master both of themselves and of the slaves is in Heaven, and that with Him there is no distinction of persons". Michigan Finance Authority. [96]:31 As one of the more powerful institutions of the Middle Ages, Church attitudes were reflected in many secular laws of the time. [336], The Fugger Family from Augsburg, Germany who were bankers, 500 years ago founded one of the first social housing projects in the world, which exists till today. This helped form a group of independent minded warlords into a well-administered empire, with a tradition of working with the Pope, which became the precursor to the nation of France. Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale [The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition] (in Italian) (18901909; reprinted 19291939 and 19641966 ed.). Many exposed children died, but many were taken by speculators who raised them to be slaves or prostitutes. Percy Ernst Schramm, Neun Generationen: Dreihundert Jahre deutscher "Kulturgeschichte" im Lichte der Schicksale einer Hamburger Brgerfamilie (16481948). [316][317] The Old Philadelphianss were often associated with the American upper class and the Episcopal Church and Quakerism. [270], The famous astronomers Nicholas Copernicus, who put the sun at the centre of the heavens in 1543, and Galileo Galilei, who experimented with the new technology of the telescope and, with its aid declared his belief that Copernicus was correct, were both practising Catholics indeed Copernicus was a Catholic clergyman. Federal jurisdiction is divided into federal question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction. Vol. Formally, a string is a finite, ordered sequence of characters such as letters, digits or spaces. ", 1997-19 Illegal Practices of Following Sales & Assessing Over 50%, 2017-02 Electronic Filing of Real Property Statements, Personal Property Statements and the Combined Document, 2017-07 Transfer of Qualified Agricultural Property, 2017-18 Recalculating Taxable Value Which Follow the Years Changed by an MTT Order, 2018-04 Computerized Database System Assessment Roll, 2018-14 Electronic Filing of Real Property Statements, Personal Property Statements, Small Business Taxpayer Exemption Claim and Combined Document(Form 5278), 2020-08 Overview of Audit Process and Designated Assessor under PA 660 of 2018, 1995-15 The July and December Boards of Review and the Affects of Act No. The rise of Protestantism in the 16th century contributed to the development of banking in Northern Europe. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. [260], The first Index was published in 1559 by the Sacred Congregation of the Roman Inquisition. 74 of Public Acts of 1995, 2020-21 July and December Boards of Review, 2010-22 State Tax Commission Statement Regarding Property Classification, 1997-08 DDA, TIFA, LDFA Capture Restrictions, 1982-19 Standards for Equalization Studies, 1997-07 Certification of County Equalization Directors, 2006-17 Procedure for Equalization of Property Owned by the State and Controlled by the DNR, 1985-04 Assessment of LP Gas Tanks, Exemption of Fish Harvesting and Wood Harvesting Equipment, 1991-01 Exemption of Liquefied Petroleum Gas Tanks (LPG Tanks) from 1991 taxes, 1994-03 Confidentiality of Social Security Numbers, 1997-03 Implementation of Public Act 476 of 1996 (HB 5359), 1997-04 Qualified Agricultural Property (Replaces Bulletin #10 of 1995), 2000-18 Expansion of Charitable Exemption Contained in MCL 211.7o, 2001-08 Changes to Definition of Agricultural Use, 2002-08 Buildings of Leased Land Tenant-Installed Leasehold Improvements, 2003-01 Leasehold Improvements, Freestanding Signs and Billboards, Poverty Guidelines, 2003-09 Changes to the Homestead Exemption and the Qualified Agricultural Property Exemption, 2003-10 Changes to Certain Exemptions as Required by PA 140 of 2003, 2005-04 Cemetery Property Exemptions and Taxable Business Property, 2007-07 Michigan Business Tax and Personal Property Exemptions, 2010-12 Charitable Non-Profit Housing PA 109 of 2010, 2013-22 P.A. Encyclopedia of Religion. "The European witch stereotype embodies two apparent paradoxes: first, it was not produced by the 'barbaric Dark Ages', but during the progressive Renaissance and the early modern period; secondly, Western Christianity did not recognize the reality of witches for centuries, or criminalize them until around 1400. Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendence on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCohen1994 (. With Illustrations of Jewish Customs and Life. The Baroque style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor. Further, marriage was said to be for the "relief of concupiscence"[169] as well as any spiritual purpose. It was moved to Castel Gandolfo in the 1930s and the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope began making observation in Arizona, US, in 1995. [175], Christian culture puts notable emphasis on the family,[176] and according to the work of scholars Max Weber, Alan Macfarlane, Steven Ozment, Jack Goody and Peter Laslett, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in Western democracies was "fueled by the religio-cultural value system provided by elements of Judaism, early Christianity, Roman Catholic canon law and the Protestant Reformation". [230] He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province. New York: Modern Library, p. 9. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (not "guilty of heresy", as is frequently misreported), placed under house arrest, and all of his works, including any future writings, were banned. The American Medical Student Association (AMSA), with a half-century history of medical student activism, is the oldest and largest independent association of physicians-in-training in the United States. The ancient texts of the Bible have deeply influenced Western art, literature and culture. Analogous jurisdiction existed in medieval times on the European Continent. One school of thought attributes Calvinism with setting the stage for the later development of capitalism in northern Europe. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. Although cultural continuity and interchange would continue between these Eastern and Western Roman Empires, the history of Christianity and Western culture took divergent routes, with a final Great Schism separating Roman and Eastern Christianity in 1054 AD. Their worldly interests and blatant political maneuverings only intensified the mounting disapproval of the papacy and provided the church's critics with more examples of the institution's corruption and decline. [214]:133 During both The Renaissance and the Counter-Reformation, Catholic artists produced many of the unsurpassed masterpieces of Western art often inspired by Biblical themes: from Michelangelo's David and Piet sculptures, to Da Vinci's Last Supper and Raphael's various Madonna paintings. When Galileo began to assert that the earth in fact revolved around the sun, he therefore found himself challenging the Church establishment at a time where the Church hierarchy also held temporal power and was engaged in the ongoing political challenge of the rise of Protestantism. [102]:209214 According to Walter Ullmann, the church lost "the moral, spiritual and authoritative leadership it had built up in Europe over the centuries of minute, consistent, detailed, dynamic forward-looking work. Books thought to contain such errors included some scientific works by leading astronomers such as Johannes Kepler's Epitome astronomiae Copernicianae, which was on the Index from 1621 to 1835. Clarke calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact has remained the basis of our belief of the value of art until today".[137]. Shown Here: Public Law No: 116-283 (01/01/2021) William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021. [354], In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his monastic Rule, which became a blueprint for the organization of monasteries throughout Europe. "In most of the New World 90 percent or more of the native population was destroyed by wave after wave of previously unknown afflictions. Australia, New Zealand, and India. [208]:27 The new monasteries preserved classical craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria and libraries. In time, the Cathedral schools developed into Europe's earliest universities and the church has established thousands of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions throughout the world in the centuries since. But no matter how powerful each body may appear to be, the extent to which any of their judgments may be enforced, or proposed treaties and conventions may become, or remain, effective within the territorial boundaries of each nation is a political matter under the sovereign control each nation. The epic poetry of the Italian Dante and his Divine Comedy of the late Middle Ages is also considered immensely influential. [433] Some of the most influential Arab nationalists were Arab Christians, like George Habash, founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and Syrian intellectual Constantin Zureiq. Reports on the various taxes that the Department of Treasury administers as well as Treasury's annual reports and other revenue and budget reports. [136] The increasing popularity of devotion to the Virgin Mary (the mother of Jesus) secured maternal virtue as a central cultural theme of Catholic Europe. Under the rule of Khosrau I, refuge was granted to Greek Nestorian Christian philosophers including the scholars of the Persian School of Edessa (Urfa) (also called the Academy of Athens), a Christian theological and medical university. Greco-Roman society saw no value in an unmarried woman, and therefore it was illegal for a widow to go more than two years without remarrying. Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. 0EbT& [174]:88 "The ecclesiastical conception of the inferior status of women, deriving from Creation, her role in Original Sin and her subjugation to man, provided both direct and indirect justification for her inferior standing in the family and in society in medieval civilization. Rerum Novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions. [300] Weber asserted that Protestant ethics and values along with the Calvinist doctrine of asceticism and predestination gave birth to capitalism. John Zacharias Aktouarios recommends the use of Holy Water mixed with a pellitory plant to act as a way to cure epilepsy. [199] Christians in Asia and Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, and in Sub-Saharan Africa, overwhelmingly live in extended or two parent families with minor children. From late Antiquity, St Augustine's book Confessions, which outlines his sinful youth and conversion to Christianity, is widely considered to be the first autobiography ever written in the canon of Western Literature. The Counter-Reformation did not prevent Italian scholars from making original contributions in classical scholarship, history, law, literary criticism, logic, mathematics, medicine, philology, and rhetoric. The U.S. solved this problem by adopting the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. [72]:638 However, in antiquity, these laws were not much enforced, and Brown adds that, "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and, apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence. Boswell, John. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") was a list of publications prohibited by the Catholic Church. DISCLAIMER: These resources are created by the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts for educational purposes only. [325] It has around 18,000 clinics, 16,000 homes for the elderly and those with special needs, and 5,500 hospitals, with 65 percent of them located in developing countries. Questia. endstream endobj 134 0 obj <>stream [8]:397410. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries. "[133]:184, According to Matthews and DeWitt, "The Popes in the fourteenth to the mid-fifteenth century turned their interest to the arts and humanities rather than to pressing moral and spiritual issues. [79][80] The papacy served as a source of authority and continuity at this critical time. The Lotus case establishes two key rules to the prescription and enforcement of jurisdiction. United Gas Pipe Line Co. v. Ideal Cement Co. England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners, Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States. Pagans remained throughout the fourth and fifth centuries in sufficient numbers to preserve a broad spectrum of pagan practices into the 6th century and even beyond in some places. Christendom and Its Discontents: Exclusion, Persecution, and Rebellion, 10001500. The idea is that a State has a duty to protect its nationals and therefore if someone harms their nationals that State has the right to prosecute the accused. This "Rule" became the foundation of the majority of the thousands of monasteries that spread across what is modern day Europe; "certainly there will be no demur in recognizing that St. Benedict's Rule has been one of the great facts in the history of western Europe, and that its influence and effects are with us to this day. During the early period of capitalism, the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the Protestant countries of Holland and England, brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. [32][406][407] During the 4th through the 7th centuries, scholarly work in the Syriac and Greek languages was either newly initiated, or carried on from the Hellenistic period. From now on the Scientific Revolution moved to Northern Europe. As well as providing a focus for spiritual life, they functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers, particularly in remote regions, becoming major conduits of civilization. Stay Informed: Follow us@MiTreasuryandSign-Up for Email Alerts, Email: TreasLocalGov@michigan.gov [264] In his theory, Robert K. Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. 251254. P109. Alexander Passerin d'Entreves writes that natural law has been assailed for a century and a half, yet it remains an aspect of legal philosophy since much human rights theory is based on it. When the jurisdictions of government entities overlap one anotherfor example between a state and the federation to which it belongstheir jurisdiction is a shared or concurrent jurisdiction. [247]:340. Under international law there are different principles that are recognized to establish a State's ability to exercise criminal jurisdiction when it comes to a person. [344] In 1968, nuns or priests were the chief executives of 770 of America's 796 Catholic hospitals. The kind of physician you want to become. [322] Pauli Kettunen presents the Nordic model as the outcome of a sort of mythical "Lutheran peasant enlightenment", portraying the Nordic model as the result of a sort of "secularized Lutheranism";[323] however, mainstream academic discourse on the subject focuses on "historical specificity", with the centralized structure of the Lutheran church being but one aspect of the cultural values and state structures that led to the development of the welfare state in Scandinavia.[324]. [8]:398, With a high number of adult baptisms, the Church is growing faster in Africa than anywhere else. "[134] Sociologist Don Swenson says the explanation for this may lay in the nature of Medieval society as heirocratic which led to violence and the use of coercion to force conformity. The Supreme Court also oversees cases involving interpretation of the state Constitution, election matters, judicial conduct, and alleged misconduct by lawyers. If a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies.. Insofar as these bodies or nominated individuals may resolve disputes through judicial or quasi-judicial means, or promote treaty obligations in the nature of laws, the power ceded to these bodies cumulatively represents its own jurisdiction. "[125], In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to re-take the Holy Land from Muslim rule. A Revenue Administrative Bulletin (RAB) is a directive issued by the Bureau of Tax Policy. The implication is that other institutional forms, including the church, might disappear, but the family will endure. In addition, the Lugano Convention (1988) binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association. Were the catalysts that bring the passion, the drive and the tenacity to impact health care change in the name of a more just, inclusive world. Big Blue Interactive's Corner Forum is one of the premiere New York Giants fan-run message boards. This treatment provides [dramatic] contrast to the respect given to women during the early era of Christianity and in early Europe"[135], Women were in many respects excluded from political and mercantile life; however, some leading churchwomen were exceptions. Church scholars preserved literacy in Western Europe following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. ", "The Origin and History of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Liturgy", "The Bad Old Days Weddings and Hygiene", "The Great Famine and the Black Death 13151317, 13461351 Lectures in Medieval History Dr. Lynn H. 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